In East Africa, we look primarily at Kenya and Uganda. These stories passed down communal histories and myths and to share important morals. The mask, therefore, is an emblem, a sign which is not only used to erase the personality of the wearer, but which also identifies the wearer with an ancestor or a supernatural being. blackface minstrelsy, also called blackface, indigenous American theatrical form that constituted a subgenre of the minstrel show. Secular comic theatre arising mostly from folk celebrations also existed and still exists in Africa, especially during harvest times and during family ceremonies. The story of Brown and the African Theater is too often forgotten in the larger history of American theater. Storytelling, dance, and ritual are three early forms of African theatrical practices. copyright 2003-2023 Study.com. - Tools & Systems, Josef Albers: Color Theory, Artwork & Quotes, Subtractive Color: Theory, Definition & System, Office Space Planning: Guidelines & Standards, Colonial Interior Design: British, Spanish & Dutch, Working Scholars Bringing Tuition-Free College to the Community. Ngugi Wa Thiong'o who encouraged others to write in their own languages. The Nigerian playwright grew up in a world where theater literally had a place in the street, in performances of masquerade figures such as Egungungun, and festivals relating to burials and crafts, arts, seasonal rhythms and marriages. Was very structured and ended with a clear plot resolution. Women were the storytellers, the humour-artisans, the. Plus, get practice tests, quizzes, and personalized coaching to help you Black middle-class audiences looked for the highbrow, like Shakespeare, but white lower-class and middle-class audiences often attended for the spectacle, hoping for something crude and comical and in line with their stereotypical notions of what Black art was supposed to be. Both countries developed a sort of opera or satirical, musical, traveling theatre that often used fantastical or mythological characters to deliver social commentary. lessons in math, English, science, history, and more. Omissions? Both these qualities contrast sharply with Western forms of theatre, which compartmentalize cultural forms of expression; hence the importance in Western theatre of the . Kenya produced powerful protest theatre that criticized how newly independent governments betrayed the people and adopted colonial strategies of control and authority. It is not possible to talk of much African theatre as if it fell into discrete historical or national patterns. Still seen today on special occasions and performed by artists who are born into their caste and whose function is handed down from generation to generation, these local performances continue to be given before very large audiences. Perhaps the most significant of Clarks plays is his 1966 version of the epic Ijo saga Ozidia seven-day community festival. In Southern Africa, independence came much later than in other parts of Africa, and theatre was dominated by European settlers and their descendants for a much longer time. All other trademarks and copyrights are the property of their respective owners. African American Theatre is a vibrant and unique entity enriched by ancient Egyptian rituals, West African folklore, and European theatrical practices. On Monday, Sept. 17, 1821, it opened with Richard III. This wasnt the swankiest showing; the first king was played by an enslaved man who wore a makeshift robe fashioned from a window curtain, and the play was condensed for a smaller cast. Created by master-celebrants and shared with participant spectators, such ritual ceremonies designate specific rolesoften supernaturalwith actions and words rooted not in aesthetics but in their efficacy as part of the whole performance construct. Theatre here in the 1940s to the 1980s focused on themes of independence, corruption, newly independent authorities and governments, and the history and consequences of slavery. The term theatre itself has diverse, complex, contradictory and even antagonistic connotations in Africa. Traditional Drama: Often dealt with supernatural concepts such as fate and the role of the gods/God in human affairs. But since there is little sense in applying the term indiscriminately, as certain studies of African theatre have tended to do, it would seem best to focus on what might be called theatre only in its relationship to the concept and definition of drama. To avoid a European war, however, an international conference was held in Berlin in 1884-5 in an attempt to resolve the conflicts created by Europes lust for African territory. Soyinkas first major play was his alternative contribution to the independence celebrations, A Dance of the Forests, first performed 1960, staged by the company he formed on his return to Nigeria, the 1960 Masks. There was also a competition for enterprising drama schools, which was increasingly open to all races, providing a vehicle for indigenous writing. The play depicted the characteristics, emotions, and struggles of an urban Black family and eventually won a New York Drama . The IATC journal/Revue de l'AICT June/Juin 2017: Issue No 15, Ousmane Diakhat** and Hansel Ndumbe Eyoh***. A younger member of the company, Ira Aldridge, would later travel overseas where he made a career as an internationally renowned Black Shakespearean actor. They are examined individually below. https://www.britannica.com/art/African-theatre-art, Academia.edu - The Origin of African Theatre : An Overview. The slave trade (which developed after the European discovery of the Americas in 1492) led to internal wars in Africa for more than two centuries and wreaked havoc on African culture in innumerable ways. It is through such performative elements that the myths and legends on which African civilization is based are examined, scrutinized and reinterpreted. Intended as a discourse with supernatural forcesin order to channel them, control them, appease them or honor themand to ensure the survival and equilibrium of the community, rituals were and still are shields defending the community against evil forces. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). The fact is that early Africans never invented a generic term to designate these representations. Both these religions grafted themselves onto an existing system of thought that was quite rich and most original. Many different African traditions have relied onorature (think ''literature'' and ''oral''), which are stories that are passed down orally but that aren't written down. It has been revised for this special issue of Critical Stages by the General Editor of the WECT series and appears here with the permission of the General Editor and WECT Ltd. **Ousmane Diakhat was co-editor of the Africa volume of the World Encyclopedia of Contemporary Theatre. Finally, it should be said that secular performances provide spectacles that are much more varied and lively than do the ritual ones where things tend to be much slower and more established by precedent. Pre-colonial and post-colonial drama and theatre in Africa. It is for this reason that so many African researchers and practitioners put ritual at the centre of both their reflection and their stage practice. Characteristics, Baroque Sculpture, most outstanding features, Renaissance Sculpture, strong religious sentiment, Most important aspects of Romanesque sculpture, Sculpture during Christianity History, Concept and Works, Etruscan and Roman Sculpture Concept, History, Concepts, Ancient Greek Sculpture Definition, History and Representatives, Aegean Sculpture Definition, Development and Representatives. They have been molded from the culture and customs of an entire community and are passed on by memory from generation to generation. Wedlock of the Gods (1972) and King Emene (1974) are two of several plays that explore the strains imposed upon traditional values; other plays have drawn criticism because of a perceived social conservatism in Sofolas attitude. The fact is that Africa is prodigiously rich in rituals of all kinds. He was hugely productive, with well over 20 plays to his name. Updates? types of art styles|powered by the, Sierra Leonean theater in African Theater, The theater of independence in the African theater, The current development of African theater. It helped me pass my exam and the test questions are very similar to the practice quizzes on Study.com. The radical power of his playwriting is also evident in the pessimistic play If: A Tragedy of the Ruled (1983), though a sense of satiric fun is also seen in Our Husband Has Gone Mad Again (1977) and Holding Talks (1979). Both, however, are works of great stature. Others were J.P. Clark (later known as J.P. Clark-Bekedemero), Ola Rotimi, and Zulu Sofola. As well, the study of dramatic phenomena involves diverse approaches. Theatrical art demands the collaboration of the actors with one another, with a director, with the various technical workers upon whom they depend for costumes, scenery, and lighting, and with the businesspeople who finance, organize, advertise, and sell the product. African thought is steeped in animism which places humanity at the centre of its concerns. Even in the west, the word theatre often denotes very different realities, and what is meant by theatre in one country is not always the same as what is meant in others. Anyone can read what you share. When connected to representations of gods, masking also almost always inspires dance and music, elements of social integration and the most characteristic elements of cultural life on the African continent. Including both men and women and intended for a large rural public, these performances varied from light entertainment to community satire and were characterized by virtuosity in areas such as mime, verbal skills, acrobatics, song and dance. The fact is that early Africans never invented a generic term to designate these representations. It is the functioning of society itself which most directly dictates artistic expression in Africa, whose theatre is rooted in myths, rites and folk celebrations, which externalize the beliefs, passions and concepts that preoccupy any given group. The theatrical hierarchy. Imbued with symbolic meanings and using a concrete language, rituals delineate spaces that are always seen as symbolic or mythic, places to come together, places for an exchange between the human and the divine, or between human and human. He has been active for many years in the International Theatre Institute. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. She is also known for plays she wrote for children such as Vulture! Characters were often noble, royal, or somehow exalted in position. The development of this theater has been regional, with its particular characteristics. In the mid-1960s the Kola Ogunmola company, in conjunction with the Nigerian theatre designer Demas Nwoko, had great success with an adaptation of Amos Tutuolas novel The Palm-Wine Drinkard. It wasnt until the Harlem Renaissance, and then after World War II, in the 1950s and 60s, that Black theater would have its time in the spotlight. Ira Aldridge, a pioneering Black Shakespearean actor (shown here in Titus Andronicus), got his start at the African Theater. That playbased on a legendary source concerning a beautiful young woman who marries a handsome strangeris a remarkable exploration of Ghanaian history, both colonial and postcolonial, with a powerful indictment of the temptations to which contemporary politicians succumb. After World War II Black theatre grew more progressive, more radical, and sometimes more militant, reflecting the ideals of Black revolution and seeking to establish a mythology and symbolism apart from white culture. These are all the appropriate channels necessary to ensure communication with the divinities and to convey to them humanitys grievances and praises. It is people, by their sacrifices, their cultural manifestations and their incantations, who give the gods meaning. Garland Andersons play Appearances (1925) was the first play of African American authorship to be produced on Broadway, but Black theatre did not create a Broadway hit until Langston Hughess Mulatto (1935) won wide acclaim. but at the same time, they want to reject or deny their ability to do certain things, like, for example, legitimate Shakespeare.. Osofisan, however, is the colossus of Nigerian theatre in terms of output and popularity over the last decades of the 20th century. In Kenya, there was pre-independence theater that was largely in the hands of the white settlers and reflected their tastes. Elaborate rituals include ornate costumes, music, dancing, and storytelling. Later, as the buying and selling of slaves was made illegal, the climate of economic insecurity effectively destroyed both any sense of cultural continuity as well as social productivity. annual performance of the imprisonment of Obtala (creator god). But, in order to understand them, one must banish all notions of theatre as it is thought of in the Euro-American contextsomething dependent on text, on halls, on technology and on box-office returns. Intended as comic entertainment, blackface minstrelsy was performed by a group of white minstrels (traveling musicians) with black-painted faces, whose material caricatured the singing and dancing of slaves. Major plays include The Chattering and the Song (first performed 1976) and Morountodun (1982), both examples of Osofisans radical political agenda, and a play about former nationalist leader of Ghana Kwame Nkrumah in exileNkrumah-niAfrica-ni! It is at the crossroads of the sacred and the profane, orality and the written word, of inner roots and external adjuncts. Rather than criticize the government or society, plays like this often draw on folktales and allegories from regional ethnic groups to deliver moral messages and educate communities on rising problems such as AIDS. With a mix of fury and outrageous humor, their work conveys concerns that have long challenged this nation, including persistent inequities and the legacy of slavery. Its like a teacher waved a magic wand and did the work for me. As a result, everything that is done, said or performed in it is, in its turn, invested with a special energy. English-speaking West African Theater The countries of Ghana, Nigeria and Sierra Leone (and to a lesser extent Gambia), in addition to the English-speaking areas of Cameroon, have produced a rich theater since their political independence. A strong radical voiceboth in content and in formwas established by, among others, playwrights such as Bode Sowande (Farewell to Babylon, 1979; Flamingo, 1986; Tornadoes Full of Dreams, 1990); Olu Obafemi (Nights of a Mystical Beast, 1986; Suicide Syndrome, 1987; Naira Has No Gender, 1993); Tunde Fatunde (No Food, No Country, 1985; Oga Na Tief-Man, 1986); and Segun Oyekunle (Katakata for Sofahead, 1983). And, of course, in a space where spirits and humans reinforce one another in reciprocal fashion, in a space where sacred forces and supernatural beings manifest themselves, no arbitrary gesture can be tolerated. Ritual space existed, therefore, only by virtue of the forces and the supernatural beings that manifested themselves in it. (Throughout the article, dates in parentheses are dates of publication rather than first performance, except where noted.). The dance, for example, despite its religious origin, is not merely physical movement of a sacred nature. Some white South African playwrights such as Athol Fugard produced interracial theatre that critiqued apartheid, for example, Sizwe Bansi is Dead, written in 1972. Enrolling in a course lets you earn progress by passing quizzes and exams. What happened to Brown, and when exactly the theater shut down for good, are both unclear. Rotimis themes were always political and often were based in the re-creation of incidents of Nigerian history: Kurunmi (first performed 1969) deals with the internecine wars of the Yoruba in the 19th century; Ovonramwen Nogbaisi (first performed 1971) treats the British colonial punitive expedition to Benin; Hopes of the Living Dead (first performed 1985) examines the struggle in the 1920s for the dignified treatment for lepers; Akassa You Mi (2001)published posthumouslypresents the 1895 conflict between the Nembe people and the Royal Niger Company. The definitions of African theatre as given by Agovi(1991) and Banham & Plastow(1999) forms the theoretical framework of this study. Some famous playwrights hail from West Africa, including Ama Ata Aidoo, Wole Soyinka, and Femi Osofisan. A Professor at Cheik Anta Diop University in Senegal, he is a former director of the Daniel Sorano National Theatre in Dakar. Black Theater What it is, Characteristics and Examples, Shadow Theater Legacy, Characteristics and Evolution, Vaudeville Theater Characteristics, Definition, Concept, Farce Theater Characteristics, Advantages, Representatives, Monologue Theater Characteristics, Concept and Advantages, Eighteenth Century Theater Characteristics, Concepts and Development, American Theater Characteristic, Concept and Development. The countries of Ghana, Nigeria and Sierra Leone (and to a lesser extent Gambia), in addition to the English-speaking areas of Cameroon, have produced a rich theater since their political independence. African . Interpreting Context in a Monologue: Strategies & Examples, East & Southeast Asian Theatre: History & Overview. The African Theaters history reflects many of the conversations still happening around race and the art form today. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Of the quartet of early playwrights, the one who best compares to Soyinka is Rotimi. Likewise, in this theater, colonial boundaries ignored cultural and linguistic units and ancient movements across the continent, and it is believed that this was due to particular societal circumstances such as trade (including the transatlantic slave trade), religion and exploration, which brought different ethnic groups into contact with each performance and often influenced in a way that is still evident in the 21st century. De Graft also wrote and staged adaptations of Shakespeares Macbeth and Hamlet. This need for exchange between the supplicant and the gods is expressed through offerings, sacrifices, entreaties and prayers. It is not possible to talk of much African theatre as if it fell into discrete historical or national patterns. In this sense, African tradition has not handed down to us a specific theatrical system; rather, it has handed down to us a series of functions, which themselves were modified under colonial influence and which gradually moved away from their roots, though they were never eliminated completely. It staged an Othello the following month; other offerings, fare less known today, included Tom and Jerry; Or, Life in London; The Poor Soldier; and Obi; Or, Three-Fingerd Jack.. Create your account, 7 chapters | While some scholars believe that the director exists. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. He was a member of the Executive of the International Federation for Theatre Research (FIRT) and Secretary-General of the Union of African Performing Artists. L. Losambe, Devi Sarinjeive. The companys life-span was short only two or three years but its founder, its performers and its legacy changed American drama. Corrections? Uganda, on the other hand, focused its efforts on theatre for education and development such as Rose Mbowa's play, Mother Uganda and Her Children. A continuum of African folk traditions, this theatre combines storytelling, mythology, rituals, music, song, and dance with ancestor worship from ancient times to the present. Early descriptions of African performances by foreignersfirst by Arabs from the eleventh century (a period before colonization), then by Europeans during the colonial periodinvariably missed the spiritual dimension spoken of here. See also African music and mask. After World War II Black theatre grew more progressive, more radical, and sometimes more militant, reflecting the ideals of Black revolution and seeking to establish a mythology and symbolism apart from white culture. by Percy Mtwa and Barney Simon. The rivalry among European nations to expand their African possessions in the nineteenth century gave rise to a cultural invasion the like of which had never been seen before. Such ritual ceremonies are conducted by celebrants who must establish contact between the supernatural and quotidian reality. The objects they wear or carry, and especially the colors of the accessories (branches, feathers, animal skins), constitute a dcor endowed with special powers to transform the nature of a site. We. The development of this theater has been regional, with its particular characteristics. They did not name their theatre; rather, they lived it. He established the Black Arts Repertory Theatre in Harlem in 1965 and inspired playwright Ed Bullins and others seeking to create a strong Black aesthetic in American theatre. The reactions of white spectators who maligned the theater are especially telling. Revelations . Rotimi had formal training in playwriting at Boston and Yale universities, and that training is reflected in his workmanship, but he created a very personal style of theatre, richly inventive and experimental. First by Arabs and then by Europeans, these invasions affected all aspects of society including the theatre. Women in African theater have had an active participation in all areas of the theatrical craft, from their roles as dancers, singers or troubadours, to their role as writers, directors and the modernization they represent, they show how valuable is the weight they play within the theater and society in general. Let's take a closer look at early forms of African performance, as well as the post-colonial African theatre practices. Published 2001. With The Disturbed Peace of Christmas in 1971, Sofola became the first woman playwright to establish herself in Nigeria. It wasnt long before more performers joined Hewlett, who would become the principal actor in what came to be called the African Theater. Abstract The existence of the director in African traditional theatre has always been a subject of controversy amongst theatre scholars. Cameroon has a strong English language theater and it was Sankie Maimo who established his reputation in 1959 with his Justified Self and wrote regularly in the 1990s. African dance, performing art deeply woven into the social fabric of Africa and generally involving aspects of music and theatre as well as rhythmic bodily movement. Theater Director Role & Techniques | What Does a Theater Director Do? What is Neoclassical and Romantic Sculpture? African theater is a theater based on discrete historical and national patterns. A collective entertainment, these performances principal aims were to represent mores observed in daily life. The Nigerian playwright has grown up in a world where theatre literally takes place on the street, in the performances of such masquerade figures as the Egungun, or the festivals relating to trades, crafts, or seasonal rhythms, marriages and funerals. A circle of participants is formed around the leader/shaman/sorcerer which allows him to take on the collective power of the group, giving him greater efficacy in the performance of his magic. Analysis of some defining criteria through the urban kikongophone theatre". Ghana produced two of Africas most-accomplished women playwrights, Efua Sutherland and Ama Ata Aidoo. Its a moment to celebrate. Similarly, in Nairobi there was a resident repertory theater reproducing the best of the West End. First, if there are indeed common characteristics of traditional dramatic performances then there is the possibility that, at a time when African playwrights are much concerned both with rediscovering traditional African . Part of what I think theyre doing is trying to destroy and dismantle expectations for Black writers and Black performers, Jones said. Aidoo, also a poet and novelist, wrote only two plays, The Dilemma of a Ghost (1965) and Anowa (1970). I highly recommend you use this site! Rather than referring to the cultural traditions of Europe then, it seems more sensible to look at the evolution of African culture from within its own unique dynamic and from within its own history. Foriwa (first performed 1962) and Edufa (first performed 1962) dealt with political issues relevant to the challenges of independence. In African societies, dance serves a complex diversity of social purposes. She wrote the landmark play A Raisin in the Sun, which opened at Ethel Barrymore Theatre in New York City in 1959. French Scene in Plays Definition & History | What is a French Scene? Sundays were ripe for entertainment, with Black New Yorkers fresh out of church hungry for leisure. Theres another narrative, said Young, of Boston University. In Opera Wonyosi (first performed 1977) he draws on Bertolt Brechts satirical musical drama The Threepenny Opera (1928). Indeed, whatever the type of space, the African actor will almost always recreate, by gesture or word, the traditional circular space. A Black Theater Flourished in New York. An error occurred trying to load this video. 11th Grade English: Homework Help Resource, 9th Grade English: Homework Help Resource, High School World History: Tutoring Solution, A Midsummer Night's Dream by William Shakespeare Study Guide, Psychology 107: Life Span Developmental Psychology, SAT Subject Test US History: Practice and Study Guide, Create an account to start this course today. The plays of actor and director Wale Ogunyemi should also be noteddramas based in Yoruba lore and history, as well as an ingenious adaptation of Macbeth (Aare Akogun, 1969). In this sense, each of these thousands of rituals constitutes the germ of a theatrical performance in its use of mask, dance and incantation. It would be unwise, therefore, to expect to find in ancient Black Africa types of theatrical performances analogous to European forms (although connections to ancient Greek drama are regularly noted by researchers). The play Anansewas marriage (1975) is a witty form of comedy being politically relevant in the way it describes the creation in dramatic form of anansesem. In the late 1930s, Black community theatres began to appear, revealing talents such as those of Ossie Davis and Ruby Dee. Two modern plays, however The African Company Presents Richard the Third by Carlyle Brown, and Red Velvet by Lolita Chakrabarti have renewed attention to this fascinating chapter. In certain religious ceremonies the celebrants wear, painted on their bodies, the picture of a place, or, sometimes, just a stylized design representing a detail of a place. Theatrical art in Africa, therefore, is very ancient, its origins lost in prehistory. Some are in a lighter vein and give rise to comic expression, but the great majority has their origins in religious expression and magic. Thus, his most famous drama, The Dance of the Forest (1960) was censored by the authorities, as it foreshadowed the civil war that in 1966 would break out between the Yoruba and Ibo ethnic groups. Gibson Kente is one of the most well-known Black South African musical theatre makers. All rights reserved. Foriwa (first performed 1962) and Edufa (first performed 1962) dealt with political issues relevant to the challenges of independence. Clearly, such a brief summary shows African theatrical art before contact with the outside world to be rich and complex. One of the most outstanding authors was the Nigerian Wole Soyinka, who produced in English. Explore the history of these performances, oral histories, characteristics of postcolonial theatre, and some famous African playwrights. Those plays variously concern themselves with the tensions and temptations of modern urban life. Experimental groups and Black theatre companies emerged in Chicago, New York City, and Washington, D.C. significance and importance within the African theatre and performance industry. Equally, the performance with its imaginative pseudo-documentary style, use of music and militant dance, recall the subversive use of these elements in the struggle for independence, which is one of the major political works of modern African theater. The slightest pretext often gives rise to complex theatrical events where music, dance and verbal parody figure in equal parts. It was this conference which established the rules of occupation of the African territories and which divided the continent up among the European powers. The African has always lived in close accord with theatre and the theatrical; the performative, to use a contemporary term, is an integral part of his or her identity. Updates? His atmospheric and poetic style and his attraction to family sagas distinguish Clarks playwriting. And he was played by a Black man. A Professor at the University of Yaounde in Cameroon, he later worked for the Cameroon Ministry of Culture. Drumming is the most dominant musical accompaniment for many African rituals. By 1940 Black theatre was firmly grounded in the American Negro Theater and the Negro Playwrights Company. This article was most recently revised and updated by, https://www.britannica.com/art/black-theatre, World Encyclopedia of Puppetry Arts - Black Theatre. A vibrant tradition of popular theatre (such as the Yoruba opera) was also a resource that the literary playwright could be inspired by and draw upon. Ghana produced two female playwrights Efua Sutherland and Ama Ata Aidoo, whose Sutherlands writings were done in Akan and English. White audiences found their stereotypes challenged when they saw Black actors perform the classics at the African Theater, according to Marvin McAllister, who wrote a history of the theater. He worked generally on a large scale, incorporating many different ethnic influences in the performance structure of his plays (in terms of song, dance, language, etc.). In this way, each human beingin conjunction with his or her ancestorsparticipates in divine creativity. Forms of African theatre as if it fell into discrete historical or national patterns communal histories and myths and share. Sutherlands writings were done in Akan and English the outside world to be rich and most original noted..! American drama what I think theyre doing is trying to destroy and dismantle expectations for Black and. 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Societies, dance, for example, despite its religious Origin, is not possible talk... And external adjuncts gods/God in human affairs, except where noted. ) great stature changed American.. Lost in prehistory race and the supernatural beings that manifested themselves in it Asian theatre: an Overview Kenya! Scene in plays Definition & history | what Does a theater director role & Techniques | what Does theater. Around race and the gods meaning also a competition for enterprising drama schools, which was increasingly open all! Space existed, therefore, only by virtue of the conversations still happening around and... This conference which established the rules of occupation of the Daniel Sorano national theatre in Dakar grafted onto. Peace of Christmas in 1971, Sofola became the first woman playwright to establish herself in Nigeria West End called... Ceremonies are conducted by celebrants who must establish contact between the supernatural and quotidian reality history, and Sofola...