They were pickled to remove dirt and impurities, dipped in molten bronze, tin, and aluminum-silicon alloy, canned using hydraulic presses, and then capped using arc welding under an argon atmosphere. [68] With Churchill's backing, he attempted to ensure that every request from Groves for assistance was honored. Located on the Ottawa River, it had access to abundant water. [32] The GDA started assessing four designs: Westinghouse AP1000; Areva EPR; AECL ACR-1000; and GE-Hitachi ESBWR. Some jobs, such as those in research and development, require a masters degree or Ph.D. Bachelors degree engineering programs often consist of classroom, laboratory, and field studies. The Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA), formed in April 2005 under the Energy Act 2004, oversees and manages the decommissioning and clean-up of the UK's older Magnox power plants and the reprocessing facilities at Sellafield, which were transferred to its ownership from BNFL, and the former nuclear research and development facilities previously run by the UKAEA. It was not restricted to those involving nuclear weapons. [72] The Quebec Agreement established the Combined Policy Committee to coordinate the efforts of the United States, United Kingdom and Canada. Matthias reported that Hanford Site near Richland, Washington, was "ideal in virtually all respects". The smallest of these fragments in ternary processes ranges in size from a proton to an argon nucleus. In recent years there has been an accumulation of evidence indicating that the 1607 Bristol Channel floods may also have resulted from a tsunami that rose from a height of 4m (13ft) to over 6m (20ft) as it passed up the channel. The UK initiated a nuclear weapons programme, codenamed Tube Alloys, during the Second World War.At the Quebec "[4], In February 1940, the U.S. Navy awarded Columbia University $6,000 in funding,[5] most of which Enrico Fermi and Szilard spent on purchasing graphite. [59], The Civil Nuclear Constabulary is responsible for security at civil nuclear sites, within 5km (3.1 miles) of site boundaries, and for nuclear materials in transit. Although even short-range missiles allow for a faster and less vulnerable attack, the development of long-range intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) has given some nations the ability to plausibly deliver missiles anywhere on the globe with a high likelihood of success. A discussion with RAND policy researcher Edward Geist about what might happen if Vladimir Putin decides to use nuclear weapons on Ukraine. The purification methods that were eventually used in 231-W were still unknown when construction commenced on 8 April 1944, but the plant was complete and the methods were selected by the end of the year. [94], In 1959, a letter in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists was the start of a successful campaign to stop the Atomic Energy Commission dumping radioactive waste in the sea 19 kilometres from Boston. Jonathan Toebbe continued this correspondence for several months, which led to an agreement to sell Restricted Data in exchange for thousands of dollars in cryptocurrency. Before sharing sensitive information, Fission is a form of nuclear transmutation because the resulting fragments (or daughter atoms) are not the same element as the original parent atom. The government stated that there would be no subsidies for nuclear power. Between 1939 and 1940, Joliot-Curie's team applied for a patent family covering different use cases of atomic energy, one (case III, in patent FR 971,324 - Perfectionnements aux charges explosives, meaning Improvements in Explosive Charges) being the first official document explicitly mentioning a nuclear explosion as a purpose, including for war. A new process for flux-less welding was developed, and 97% of the cans passed a standard vacuum test, but high temperature tests indicated a failure rate of more than 50%. Each of these components is known as a "stage", with the fission bomb as the "primary" and the fusion capsule as the "secondary". About Our Coalition - Clean Air California In September, Fermi assembled his first nuclear "pile" or reactor, in an attempt to create a slow neutron-induced chain reaction in uranium, but the experiment failed to achieve criticality, due to lack of proper materials, or not enough of the proper materials that were available. Alan Robock and Owen Brian Toon. At 05:30 on 16 July 1945 the gadget exploded with an energy equivalent of around 20 kilotons of TNT, leaving a crater of Trinitite (radioactive glass) in the desert 250 feet (76m) wide. A follow-up report indicated that, of the three likely scenarios modelled, a Lisbon-type event would pose the greatest danger, potentially resulting in a tsunami wave exceeding the 1:100-year extreme sea level at the Cornish peninsula by up to 1.4m (4ft 7in), but being within the range elsewhere. A November 1942 survey determined that sufficient quantities of uranium were available to satisfy the project's requirements. The average growth rate for all occupations is5 percent. [100] The need for land, for a new road, and later for a right of way for a 25-mile (40km) power line, eventually brought wartime land purchases to 45,737 acres (18,509.1ha), but only $414,971 was spent. [76], In the same year, a cross-party committee inquiry concluded that the UK "will not be able to meet its climate change targets without new nuclear build". ". These were wound onto magnetic coils by Allis-Chalmers in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. [89] While Stone & Webster concentrated on the production facilities, the architectural and engineering firm Skidmore, Owings & Merrill designed and built a residential community for 13,000. While there is a de facto nuclear power phaseout underway in Scotland and there are plans to replace existing reactors with newly-built ones in England and Wales (sometimes using existing sites for the new reactors), no nuclear power plant has ever been built or planned in Northern Ireland. [43] Nor were they impressed with estimates to the nearest order of magnitude, which Groves compared with telling a caterer to prepare for between ten and a thousand guests. [325] Able was detonated on 1 July 1946. [3][4] Most fissions are binary fissions (producing two charged fragments), but occasionally (2 to 4 times per 1000 events), three positively charged fragments are produced, in a ternary fission. [34], Graham Allison makes a similar case, arguing that the key to expanded deterrence is coming up with ways of tracing nuclear material to the country that forged the fissile material. Strenuous recovery efforts helped raise production to 10% of the uranium-235 feed by January 1945. [55], In 2010 the Nuclear Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre was created in Rotherham, South Yorkshire, led by the University of Sheffield with Rolls-Royce, anticipating involvement in any forthcoming new nuclear builds in the UK. This base, close to the border with Nevada, was codenamed "Kingman" or "W-47". In October 1942, Major John H. Dudley of the Manhattan District was sent to survey the area. The thorium fuel cycle produces virtually no plutonium and much less minor actinides, but 232U - or rather its decay products - are a major gamma ray emitter. In June 1945, Wilson agreed that the use of nuclear weapons against Japan would be recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee. Some product produced the next month reached nearly 7% enrichment. All state projections data are available at www.projectionscentral.com. [148] Compared with a gaseous diffusion plant or a nuclear reactor, an electromagnetic separation plant would consume more scarce materials, require more manpower to operate, and cost more to build. [139], On 2 June 2020, EDF Energy announced that it had submitted a development consent order to the UK government prior to starting construction on the Sizewell C site in Suffolk. Prop 30 is supported by a coalition including CalFire Firefighters, the American Lung Association, environmental organizations, electrical workers and businesses that want to improve Californias air quality by fighting and preventing wildfires and reducing air pollution from vehicles. A Microsoft 365 subscription offers an ad-free interface, custom domains, enhanced security options, the full desktop version of Medical. After the feasibility of the world's first artificial nuclear reactor, the Chicago Pile-1, was demonstrated in 1942 at the Metallurgical Laboratory in the University of Chicago, the project designed the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge and the production reactors at the Hanford Site in Washington state, in which uranium was irradiated and transmuted into plutonium. Several states require continuing education for engineers to keep their licenses. There were four known major deposits of uranium in 1940: in Colorado, in northern Canada, in Joachimsthal in Czechoslovakia, and in the Belgian Congo. They released 100kg of radioactive and toxic elements on Anangu land. There is a lack of consensus in the UK about the cost/benefit nature of nuclear energy, as well as ideological influence (for instance, those favouring 'energy security' generally arguing pro, while those worried about the 'environmental impact' against). Information on this site allows projected employment growth for an occupation to be compared among states or to be compared within one state. [235][note 6], In June 1944, the Manhattan Project employed some 129,000 workers, of whom 84,500 were construction workers, 40,500 were plant operators and 1,800 were military personnel. Radioactive fallout from nuclear weapons testing was first drawn to public attention in 1954 when the Castle Bravo hydrogen bomb test at the Pacific Proving Grounds contaminated the crew and catch of the Japanese fishing boat Lucky Dragon. Flights and 30-days vacation with pay each year. Groves approved the test, subject to the active material being recovered. Almost all of the nuclear weapons deployed today use the thermonuclear design because it is more efficient. The latest Lifestyle | Daily Life news, tips, opinion and advice from The Sydney Morning Herald covering life and relationships, beauty, fashion, health & wellbeing [225], Groves did not relish the prospect of explaining to a Senate committee the loss of a billion dollars worth of plutonium, so a cylindrical containment vessel codenamed "Jumbo" was constructed to recover the active material in the event of a failure. The girls were "trained like soldiers not to reason why", while "the scientists could not refrain from time-consuming investigation of the cause of even minor fluctuations of the dials. The group deployed there in July 1945. [170], Work commenced on 9 July 1944, and S-50 began partial operation in September. Restricted Data concerns design, manufacture or utilization of atomic weapons, or production of Special Nuclear Material (SNM), or use of SNM in the production of energy such as naval reactors. To prevent predetonation by an external neutron, the tamper was coated in a thin layer of boron. In Birmingham, England, Frisch teamed up with Peierls, a fellow German-Jewish refugee. [277] Under the codename Operation Peppermint, special equipment was prepared and Chemical Warfare Service teams were trained in its use. The most commonly used fissile materials for nuclear weapons applications have been uranium-235 and plutonium-239. Such a reaction using neutrons was an idea he had first formulated in 1933, upon reading Rutherford's disparaging remarks about generating power from his team's 1932 experiment using protons to split lithium. The only countries known to have detonated nuclear weaponsand acknowledge possessing themare (chronologically by date of first test) the United States, the Soviet Union (succeeded as a nuclear power by Russia), the United Kingdom, France, China, India, Pakistan, and North Korea. The Maud Committee was set up following the work of Frisch and Rudolf Peierls who calculated uranium-235's critical mass and found it to be much smaller than previously thought which meant that a deliverable bomb should be possible. A testing ban imposes a significant hindrance to nuclear arms development by any complying country. Military aspects were taken over by the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project (AFSWP). Nuclear reaction splitting an atom into multiple parts, Origin of the active energy and the curve of binding energy, These fission neutrons have a wide energy spectrum, with range from 0 to 14MeV, with mean of 2MeV and. The British considered ending the supply of Canadian uranium and heavy water to force the Americans to again share, but Canada needed American supplies to produce them. A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. [115], DuPont recommended that the site be located far from the existing uranium production facility at Oak Ridge. Calder Hall was the world's first nuclear power station to deliver electricity in commercial quantities[15] (although the 5MW "semi-experimental" reactor at Obninsk in the Soviet Union was connected to the public supply in 1954). A review of the SD card revealed that it contained Restricted Data related to submarine nuclear reactors. The energy dynamics of pure fission bombs always remain at about 6% yield of the total in radiation, as a prompt result of fission. Nuclear fission Groves initially allocated $300,000 for construction, three times Oppenheimer's estimate, with a planned completion date of 15 March 1943. [174], Speaking before the Energy and Climate Change Select Committee on 15 March 2011, about the Fukushima I nuclear accidents, Energy and Climate Change Minister Chris Huhne expressed concern over extreme weather events in the UK, but stated that 'we are lucky that we do not have to suffer from tsunamis'. At a nuclear power plant, new employees usually must complete onsite training in topics such as safety procedures, practices, and regulations. This was accepted, but for legal reasons a nominal fee of one dollar was agreed upon. [48], Vannevar Bush became dissatisfied with Colonel Marshall's failure to get the project moving forward expeditiously, specifically the failure to acquire the Tennessee site, the low priority allocated to the project by the Army and the location of his headquarters in New York City. In October 2010, the CameronClegg coalition took forward the previous Labour governments plans[7] for private suppliers to construct up to eight new nuclear power plants. In January 2009, British Energy was bought for approximately 12billion by EDF Energy (a subsidiary of lectricit de France (EDF)) and Centrica (a major operator of CCGT power stations and renewable sources in the UK and parent company of British Gas) in an 80/20 split. [304][305], Groves expected to have another atomic bomb ready for use on 19 August, with three more in September and a further three in October. However, uncertainty about the future of the laboratory made it hard to induce people to stay. United States Department of Defense [284] Groves met with the Chief of United States Army Air Forces (USAAF), General Henry H. Arnold, in March 1944 to discuss the delivery of the finished bombs to their targets. Many nations have been declared Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones, areas where nuclear weapons production and deployment are prohibited, through the use of treaties. After three runs over the city, and with fuel running low, they headed for the secondary target, Nagasaki. [140], Scaling this up to a production plant presented a formidable technical challenge. When the fission bomb is detonated, gamma rays and X-rays emitted first compress the fusion fuel, then heat it to thermonuclear temperatures. In July 1945, the first atomic explosive device, dubbed "Trinity", was detonated in the New Mexico desert. [161] The process faced formidable technical difficulties. These somehow had to be coated in aluminum to avoid corrosion and the escape of fission products into the cooling system. [247] The Medical Section was responsible for medical research, but also for the MED's health and safety programs. Nuclear weapons have only twice been used in war, both times by the United States against Japan near the end of World War II. Briggs held a meeting on 21 October 1939, which was attended by Szilrd, Wigner and Edward Teller. This type of fission (called spontaneous fission) is rare except in a few heavy isotopes. This first phase was formally concluded on 30 June 2021 and successfully developed a concept design. Apart from fission induced by a neutron, harnessed and exploited by humans, a natural form of spontaneous radioactive decay (not requiring a neutron) is also referred to as fission, and occurs especially in very high-mass-number isotopes. Opinion & Reviews - Wall Street Journal Medical. [290], Most of the components for Little Boy left San Francisco on the cruiser USSIndianapolis on 16 July and arrived on Tinian on 26 July. Chadwick thus pressed for British involvement in the Manhattan Project to the fullest extent and abandoned any hopes of an independent British project during the war. The office was empowered to engage in large engineering projects in addition to research. This process was first demonstrated by Klaus Clusius and Gerhard Dickel in Germany in 1938. This method employed devices known as calutrons, a hybrid of the standard laboratory mass spectrometer and the cyclotron magnet. NATO Handbook on the Medical Aspects of NBC Defensive Operations (Part I Nuclear), Swords of Armageddon: U.S. nuclear weapons development since 1945, The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, INF [Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces] Treaty, Command and Control: Nuclear Weapons, the Damascus Accident, and the Illusion of Safety, Nuclear Weapon Archive from Carey Sublette, US, Soviet, UK, Chinese and French Nuclear Weapon Testing, The National Museum of Nuclear Science & History (United States), Nuclear Emergency and Radiation Resources, The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb, Recordings of recollections of the victims of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, The Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project, Special Atomic Demolition Munition (SADM), Tactical Atomic Demolition Munition (TADM), Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future, Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR), Nuclear and radioactive disasters, former facilities, tests and test sites, Nuclear and radiation accidents by death toll, Nuclear and radiation fatalities by country, 1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident, 1990 Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident, Three Mile Island accident health effects, Thor missile launch failures at Johnston Atoll, Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_weapon&oldid=1118895720, Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1945, Articles with disputed statements from July 2013, Short description is different from Wikidata, Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism, Articles needing additional references from May 2022, All articles needing additional references, Articles containing potentially dated statements from January 2016, All articles containing potentially dated statements, Articles with unsourced statements from May 2022, Wikipedia articles in need of updating from June 2013, All Wikipedia articles in need of updating, Articles with unsourced statements from June 2013, Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2012, Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2009, Wikipedia neutral point of view disputes from October 2022, All Wikipedia neutral point of view disputes, Articles with French-language sources (fr), Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, August 21, 1945: While conducting experiments on a plutonium-gallium core at, May 21, 1946: While conducting further experiments on the same core at Los Alamos National Laboratory, physicist, Initial stagethe first 19 weeks, in which are the greatest number of deaths, with 90% due to thermal injury and/or blast effects and 10% due to super-lethal, Intermediate stagefrom 10 to 12 weeks. It may also discuss the major industries that employed the occupation. In May 2021, the median annual wages for nuclear engineers in the top industries in which they worked were as follows: Percent change in employment, projected 2021-31, Note: All Occupations includes all occupations in the U.S. Economy.Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment Projections program. The top-secret Manhattan Project, as it was colloquially known, was led by General Leslie R. Groves. [200], Overview of nuclear power in the United Kingdom. British Nuclear Fuels Limited (BNFL) was established in February 1971 from the demerger of the production division of the UK Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA). The idea was that such boxes could be formed into a cascade of pumps and membranes, with each successive stage containing a slightly more enriched mixture. However, Oppenheimer had little administrative experience, and, unlike Urey, Lawrence, and Compton, had not won a Nobel Prize, which many scientists felt that the head of such an important laboratory should have. [222], Because of the complexity of an implosion-style weapon, it was decided that, despite the waste of fissile material, an initial test would be required. Since PAEC, which One class of nuclear weapon, a fission bomb (not to be confused with the fusion bomb), otherwise known as an atomic bomb or atom bomb, is a fission reactor designed to liberate as much energy as possible as rapidly as possible, before the released energy causes the reactor to explode (and the chain reaction to stop). [58] The report was to be delivered within 6 months, with an interim report by mid-May, 'prepared in close cooperation with the International nuclear community and other nuclear safety regulators'. The most common nuclear fuels are 235U (the isotope of uranium with mass number 235 and of use in nuclear reactors) and 239Pu (the isotope of plutonium with mass number 239). [285] The only Allied aircraft capable of carrying the 17-foot (5.2m) long Thin Man or the 59-inch (150cm) wide Fat Man was the British Avro Lancaster, but using a British aircraft would have caused difficulties with maintenance. [1] Over 90 percent of the cost was for building factories and to produce fissile material, with less than 10 percent for development and production of the weapons. Bohr soon thereafter went from Princeton to Columbia to see Fermi. The decision by RWE npower and E.ON followed uncertainty over nuclear energy following the Fukushima nuclear disaster, which had occurred the year before. Typical level of education that most workers need to enter this occupation. The United States Department of Defense (DoD, USDOD or DOD) is an executive branch department of the federal government charged with coordinating and supervising all agencies and functions of the government directly related to national security and the United States Armed Forces. It does, however, limit attack range, response time to an impending attack, and the number of weapons that a country can field at the same time. [61] An American scientist who brought a personal letter from Roosevelt to Churchill offering to pay for all research and development in an Anglo-American project was poorly treated, and Churchill did not reply to the letter. He stated that the government remains convinced that new nuclear power plants are needed to help combat climate change and over-reliance on imported oil and gas. Notwithstanding the high priority allocated to it, work on the 300 area fell behind schedule due to the unique and complex nature of the 300 area facilities, and wartime shortages of labor and materials. [15] Thermonuclear weapons are considered much more difficult to successfully design and execute than primitive fission weapons. For example, a boosted fission weapon is a fission bomb that increases its explosive yield through a small number of fusion reactions, but it is not a fusion bomb. Trail's heavy water production started in January 1944 and continued until 1956. ", "Sizewell builds dry spent nuclear fuel store", "EDF Energy completes 'dry fuel store' at Sizewell B", "First cask emplaced at Sizewell B fuel store", "Nuclear sites to be cleared years early Warning that cost of clean- up will soar by at least pounds-8bn", The Nuclear Decommissioning Authority: Taking forward decommissioning, 73bn to take nuclear plants out of service, "Nuclear Provision: the cost of cleaning up Britain's historic nuclear sites", Bill to clean up nuclear sites rises by nearly 1bn, Seismicity and Earthquake Hazard in the UK, "Catastrophic Wave Erosion, Bristol Channel, United Kingdom: Impact of Tsunami? This can mean keeping weapon locations hidden, such as deploying them on submarines or land mobile transporter erector launchers whose locations are difficult to track, or it can mean protecting weapons by burying them in hardened missile silo bunkers. To the existing $10million plant consisting of 3,215 cells consuming 75MW of hydroelectric power, secondary electrolysis cells were added to increase the deuterium concentration in the water from 2.3% to 99.8%. It was thus a possibility that the fission of uranium could yield vast amounts of energy for civilian or military purposes (i.e., electric power generation or atomic bombs). M This work was taken over by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in 1943, and known as the Manhattan Engineer District. Some processes involving neutrons are notable for absorbing or finally yielding energy for example neutron kinetic energy does not yield heat immediately if the neutron is captured by a uranium-238 atom to breed plutonium-239, but this energy is emitted if the plutonium-239 is later fissioned. With focus in areas ranging from lasers, electro-optics and semiconductors to nuclear weapons and technology, these experts provide Production of such materials at industrial scale had to be solved for nuclear power generation and weapons production to be accomplished. Nonetheless, production began in June 1943. [49] In the years after the end of the Cold War, there have been numerous campaigns to urge the abolition of nuclear weapons, such as that organized by the Global Zero movement, and the goal of a "world without nuclear weapons" was advocated by United States President Barack Obama in an April 2009 speech in Prague. Restricted Data concerns design, manufacture or utilization of atomic weapons, or production of Special Nuclear Material (SNM), or use of SNM in the production of energy such as naval reactors. It was not until the U.S. entered the war in December 1941 that Washington decided to commit the necessary resources to a top-secret high priority bomb project. Each consisted of forty 17.7-by-13-by-20-foot (5.4 by 4.0 by 6.1m) cells. [95][96] The Aldermaston marches continued into the late 1960s when tens of thousands of people took part in the four-day marches. DeVolpi, Alexander, Minkov, Vladimir E., Simonenko, Vadim A., and Stanford, George S. Laura Grego and David Wright, "Broken Shield: Missiles designed to destroy incoming nuclear warheads fail frequently in tests and could increase global risk of mass destruction", David Wright and Cameron Tracy, "Over-hyped: Physics dictates that. In August 1939, concerned that Germany might have its own project to develop fission-based weapons, Albert Einstein signed a letter to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt warning him of the threat. (The high purity for carbon is required because many chemical impurities, such as the boron-10 component of natural boron, are very strong neutron absorbers and thus poison the chain reaction and end it prematurely.). [139] Jesse Beams had developed such a process at the University of Virginia during the 1930s, but had encountered technical difficulties. With miniaturization, nuclear bombs can be delivered by both strategic bombers and tactical fighter-bombers. November 2016", "The Pentagon Revealed Its Nuclear War Strategy and It's Terrifying", "Nuclear weapons: experts alarmed by new Pentagon 'war-fighting' doctrine", The Presidential Nuclear Initiatives (PNIs) on Tactical Nuclear Weapons At a Glance, Nuclear weapons and international humanitarian law, "Book review: Contesting the future of nuclear power", "CNN Poll: Public divided on eliminating all nuclear weapons", "The Stability-Instability Paradox, Misperception, and Escalation Control in South Asia", "Michael Krepon The Stability-Instability Paradox", "Here's how many nuclear warheads exist, and which countries own them", "Global Nuclear Arsenal Declines, But Future Cuts Uncertain Amid U.S.-Russia Tensions", "Renewing the United Nations: A Program for Reform", "The Nuclear 'Demon Core' That Killed Two Scientists", "Accident Revealed After 29 Years: H-Bomb Fell Near Albuquerque in 1957", "H-bomb incident crippled pilot's career", "Jan. 17, 1966: H-Bombs Rain Down on a Spanish Fishing Village", "US left nuclear weapon under ice in Greenland", "Report on the Health Consequences to the American Population from Nuclear Weapons Tests Conducted by the United States and Other Nations", "What governments offer to victims of nuclear tests", "Radiation Exposure Compensation System: Claims to Date Summary of Claims Received by 06/11/2009", "Hiroshima and Nagasaki: The Long Term Health Effects | K=1 Project", "Public Health Assessment Iodine-131 Releases", "You're More Likely to Die in a Human Extinction Event Than a Car Crash", "Nowhere to hide: How a nuclear war would kill you and almost everyone else", "Nuclear Famine: Two Billion People at Risk? 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